The child in charge. Building the scaffolding forMetacognition and Self-Regulation in the light of Dalton education across theworld

Dr. Agata Rohner

DaltonInternational

Introduction/ Abstract

The article investigates the intertwined constructsof self-regulation and metacognition along with the original cultural andhistorical fundaments of self-regulation, as a great source of inspiration forall educators and researchers across the world. The social basis of cognitionand relation between teaching and development are two aspects which constitutethe context of designing the appropriate environment for building up theenvironment that encourages self-regulation. To coordinate this exploration, Iuse numerous visions and definitions on self-regulation. In the first chapterthe subject of analysis will constitute those closest to the vision of HelenParkhurst, among others Lev Vygotsky, William James, Jean Piaget and many othereducators who praised the role of a progressive education in neo-liberalsociety of America at the beginning of XX century. Diverse theories andapproaches defined self-regulation, but we will ground our discussion on thecore values of the educators of a progressive school, focusing mainly on thevision of Helen Parkhurst.

In chapter one, James perspective onself-regulation is aligned with Self, Piaget’s and Brzezinska with intellect andaffect, and Vygotsky’s with the theory of Zone of proximal development.Finally, Parkhurst vision on self-regulation most of all based on freedom,responsibility and socialization. The third part of this article will explorethe practical framework of self-regulation and its reflection in the classroom.Key questions or issues that emerge while investigating the issue will beoutlined.

Further, this article seeks to explore theconstructs and visions on metacognition and self-regulation in both theory andpractice. We explore how self-regulation functions within the realm of humanbehaviour in connection with the vision of Helen Parkhurst in both individualand social dimension. The last part of this paper will seek to examine thepractical tools that help Dalton schools across the world to implementappropriate scaffolding tools in practice. A practical example of my project ”Welearn together” will be presented.

In order to achieve this, we will further exploreand analyse what is the influence of diverse Dalton cultures and what is theimage of self-regulation in International Dalton Schools across the world. Howdo the mental images influence the practical implementation of self-regulation,especially in Family cultures? And to what extent.

I.         Thevision of Self-regulation in the eyes of Helen Parkhurst (definition, kinds ofself-regulation, core values, etc. in theory)

The Dalton education cultivates children’s innerdiscipline rather than relying on external control. Focusing on nurturingself-regulation, independence individual and social responsibility. In thispaper, we will focus on nurturing the child’s ability as self-educator, a childwho can self-direct their cognitive and social skills, and learn to think aboutwhat they learn. In this chapter, the subject of analysis will be individualand social dimension of self-regulation in the perspective of bothpractitioners and theorists of the progressive school. One of them is LevVygotsky, whose theories found its place in self-regulation theories. LevVygotsky’s theory that children might be taught to think independently abouthow to solve problems fit well in the vision of a progressive school of thebeginning of XX century.

According to Lev Vygotsky^[1],self-regulation was the process that involves controlling one’s own actions. Itemerges through the language and the Zone of Proximal Development- the amountof learning possible when children receive proper instructional conditions. Itis a process, when individuals manage their cognitive process and behaviourshifting from the demands and influences of environment to self-formulatedplans and goals^[2].Vygotsky believed that the natural predispositions of every child can beregulated in a process of socialization and education. According to his theory,the child is endowed by nature, biological factors, such as memory capacities,skills, personality, genetical predisposition.

A broader definition of self-regulation accordingto Vygotsky, is “modulate behaviour according to cognitive, metacognitive,emotional, and social demands of particular situation”^[3].Most of all, he claimed that children can be thought to think independentlyabout how to solve a problem. Comparing his attitude with the one of Parkhurst,we need to bear in mind that Parkhurst was American. According to her visionthe child needed little instruction, no instruction or sometimes they couldchoose the instruction themselves. Her school was based on Independencestrongly influenced by American culture of leadership, freedom and democracy.Such vision on schools fits perfectly in the vision of The Netherlands,Finland, Norway, Denmark. Countries, where self-reliance and self-regulation area part of everyday lives. Situation differs significantly, when we would liketo implement that independency in masculine, family cultures with strong PowerDistant Index, such as in Turkey, Poland or China. And that moment we need toask ourselves do we need instruction? Assistance of the adults? If yes, to whatextent? Is it necessary to build the scaffolding tools to help teachers,parents to introduce the child to be independent?

Though Parkhurst did not use the term“self-regulation”, the descriptions of inner discipline or “children’s ownresponsibility”.^[4]Both Vygotsky and Parkhurst tend to develop a special environment in the schoolalong with appropriate attitudes of teachers that will help to naturallyimplement self-regulation in the classroom. In Poland, which belongs to Familyculture, one of the most important educators that help to developself-regulation in Dalton classroom was professor Anna Brzezinska. Similarly toVygotsky, she stressed the importance of children’s self-reliant developmentsupported by the peers and adults. Brzezinska claims that early childhoodsocial development support gives the opportunities for the proper psychologicaldevelopment regardless of their mental and/or physical efficiency. Brzezinskamentions two important factors in social development of the child. First, it isappropriate coordination of biological and social clock work, by providingchild with a short, effective instruction. Secondly, appropriate designingchildren’s self-reliant work zone according to their individual needs. Thisvision may be reflected in organization of classroom corners or Laboratories inDalton schools across the world. Specially designed places, where child withthe help of others or alone creates their own work in their own time.Brzezinska claims^[5]that supporting the key competences development, such as sense of safety andsense of autonomy are the core senses in the early stage development. Theprinciple which determinates the directions of peers, parents’ and teachers’supporting activity originates from Lev Vygotsky’s conception of the actual andproximal development zones. That theory characterizes the parents, teachers andpeers role not as simply removing obstacles or an excessive care, but assupporting the child in coping with the demands, tasks, social and emotionaldevelopment. To help them shape self-regulation in both individual and socialdimension. ^[6]

Both Parkhurst, Vygotsky, Brzezinska and othertheorists of a progressive school from across the world did not want toexperimentally investigate what could make up the current level of developmentof the child, but what and how to make a change so that the child controlshimself, their learning and behaviour. Such an attempt to observe, record andanalyse active forms of activity and participation of children in solving tasksand way of using the teacher’s help I have been researching in creative schoolsin 2016^[7].In particular my focus was to answer the questions: what kind of activities dochildren undertake in order to fulfill an assignment? What strategies of actionand metacognition they use for this purpose? What meaning do they give them?How the children use the teacher’s instruction? How are the teachers involved?What is the children’s motivation and initiative in performing? The researchresults have revealed that in early stages of education, the child in Polishcreative schools, indeed needed support of others to “mature” and graduallybecome independent and self-reliant. The instruction at early stage of educationwas necessary.^[8]

Educators of the progressive school such as JohnDewey, Parkhurst, Brzezinska in Poland and Vygotsky claimed that “an importantfeature of teaching is that it creates a zone of the child’s proximaldevelopment, i.e. it gives rise to development process, develops and launchesthese processes. For the time being, available to the child only in the sphereof communion with the environment and cooperation with colleagues, and thenafter undergoing internal development process, it becomes the ownership of thechild itself”.^[9]Helen Parkhurst similarly, believed that the child becomes the owner of his ownlearning and acting when the special conditions prevail, when the pedagoguesarrange a special social conditions that stimulate this process.

“These things are accomplished by creatingconditions within the school, which permit teachers to study boys and girls,and which permit boys and girls to learn”. These conditions re-organize schoolliving and utilize the principles of everyday life, it develops resourcefulnessand  encourages initiative”.^[10]

Parkhurst, similarly to Vygotsky believed that thechild can grow to their full potential and achieve all learning goals inconnection with the others, rather than individually.

They maintain that children are able to reach theirdidactical goals by completing problem-solving tasks through being engaged withcompetent peers, rather than working alone. As students leave their controlzone, they travel to the zone of proximal development to achieve their goals.The ZPD consists of two significant aspects: the child’s potential developmentand the role of interaction with the others. Learning occurs in the ZPD afterthe identification of the current knowledge. The potential development  is what child is capable of learning. BothParkhurst and Vygotsky claim that social interaction is crucial and critical tometacognitive development.  Vygotskyclaims that:

“Teaching is effective only when it anticipates thedevelopment that then a number of functions that are still maturing and lyingare revived and stimulated in the zone of proximal development”. ^[11]

“All higher psychic functions are interiorizedsocial relation transforming the basis of the social structure ofpersonality…their genetic structure, mode of operation, their entire nature issocial. Even when transforming  intomental processes, they remain quasi-social. A person, even alone, maintains aform of social context.”^[12]

Consequently, one may state that metacognitiveskills are learned in the most effective way in connection with and in relationto the others. The visualization of this process:

The visualization of this process is explained byVygotsky and his idea of social constructivism:

“The zone of proximal development is the distancebetween the actual developmental level as determined by independent problemsolving and the level of potential development as determined through problemsolving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers”.^[13]

Thus, the ZPD permits us to state what has beenalready achieved developmentally and what is in the course of maturing throughsocialization.

Comparably to Parkhurst, whose main goal was tosocialize the school to develop children’s inner skills and potential and toawaken the inner capacities of every small human being and make the process of“mature” effective. Helen writes about developing child as a person to create aharmonious and integral development of children in connection with the othersin numerous articles and publications.

“Now as I have already stated, the aim of theDalton Plan is to make of the school a co-operative community. To developconcentration and to encourage purposeful activity and cooperation in thepupils, while at the same time avoiding the pitfall of mechanical instruction,is not such an arduous task as it appears, if we will only use home life as amodel for school living. At home a child moves about as an individual from roomto toom without confusion. Usually he moves in order to get something he wants.It is this extremely simple but disregarded fact that we utilize under theDalton Plan to create and stabilize harmony and true social life in the school.We give the pupils their jobs and let them move in and out and about the laboratoriesat will, as they look for the book or the teachers that will unravel adifficulty. They seek the teachers when they need them, so that the teachers nolonger find it necessary to seek them. That is why a boy or girl of nine withuseful social experience acquired at home behind him, falls naturally into theDalton method very soon after you have put it into practice in your school”.^[14]

One might conclude, that Parkhurst was one of thepioneers who provided every child in her school with social and individualexperience in practice. Unlike Vygotsky and other theoreticians, Parkhurstorganized the Zone of Proximal development without giving it a name, in her ownschool. She brought the theories into a practical experience. According toParkhurst, experience brings about learning and learning brings aboutexperience. Parkhurst promoted work and live socially by creating certainconditions to make it happen. For Parkhurst freedom and sociality are thefundaments that constitute the real learning. And thanks to such practicaltools as assignments, graphs, laboratories and houses she enables socializationaccompanied by independent and self-reliant work of every child by providingthem with the space where this process can occur.

Focusing on a social dimension of self-regulationin relation to the Zone of Proximal Development. One might ask, do Vygotsky andParkhurst mean that children need constant assistance of a teacher andcolleagues in order to achieve their goals? Or do they need a speciallydesigned differentiated instruction^[15]to guide the children to achieve their targets? Is self-regulation possiblewhen the constant guidance from others need to take place? Or is this processdisturbed?

In order to answer those questions, we need to makeclear that self-regulation and independent work, as well as the development ofmetacognitive skills, requires maturity.What then, is defined bythe zone of proximal development, as determined through problems that childrencannot solve independently but only with assistance? The ZPD defines thosefunctions that have not yet matured. They are in the process of maturation.They will however mature with the help of others, for the time being. Vygotskydefines those processes that have not yet matured as “flowers”^[16]or “buds”^[17]of the development rather than “fruits”^[18].  

From this perspective, one can analyse that inorder to mature the metacognitive processes, children need temporarilyassistance and develop themselves with the help of the others through the processof socialization.

.

As evidenced by, developing metacognition skillsand awakening motivation while socializing pupils was for Parkhurst animmensely significant and efficient way of learning. Though she does not usethe term self-regulation, she obviously means that through working in sociallaboratories with the help of the teacher and peers, one may achieve the goals.By using the term “mechanical instruction” Parkhurst claims that explicitinstruction limits children’s capabilities, such us self-reliance andconsequently disable the smooth implementation of self-regulation. Parkhurstalso means that using the same “mechanical” patterns to instruct every child inthe same way, is also a trap and it can significantly decrease the process ofself-regulated learning.

“In the old days when you and I were “educated” wesat in a row before one who taught. Our teacher poured out instruction at onerate of speed, and though we made desperate efforts to keep pace with her, eachindividual mind assimilated the lesson at different rates of speed, so that theend of it left us all at different stages on the road. How strange that itnever occurred to those teachers that in trying “to keep the class together”they were attempting the impossible. Their thoughts were, I fear, concentratedon the art of controlling the pupil’s body. To-day we realize that whereas onepupil may take in an idea in a few minutes another may require as may hours.Psychologists can diagnose those differences in mental speed and indicate themby Intelligence Quotients; but even classification on these lines will not helpus, unless we allow for the difference between memorizing and assimilating,which is real learning. We can, for example, memorize a poem in five minutes,but is may take us five years to assimilate.”^[19]

Parkhurst analyses that the self-regulation processwill be disturbed, unless children will receive appropriate tools anddifferentiated instruction to stimulate self-regulated learning. Parkhurst doesnot use the terms “self-regulation” and “self-regulated learning”, but shestates that independent and self-reliant work will not take place with theright preparation. She stresses at the same time the significant role of ateacher, a facilitator and a vessel of information, partner rather than a lecturerthat offers nothing but a lockstep teaching. Diverse intellectual potential,skills and capacities of the children require the implementation of theeffective and differentiated instruction. The question is the self-regulationall about elicit instruction or limited one? Perhaps no instruction in somesituations is better? Parkhurst does not directly answers these issues. Shementions that only when children are provided with “real experience” whereacquiring of the knowledge rather than mechanical learning occurs, may theygrow and flourish to their full potential. That is the best stimulant ofself-regulated learning. Sometimes with little effective instructionaccompanied by the motivating and inspiring content  may stimulate the effective learning processpositively. Stimulating children’s psycho-motoric skills, psycho-organicdevelopment as well as social one, will help to stimulate self-regulation.

The progressive philosophers, from which ideasParkhurst derived her vision marked the importance of the relation betweenhuman beings and their environment, both physical and social, as a basis ofstimulating self-regulation process. ^[20]

To compare Vygotsky’s theory of ZPD one may analysethat Parkhurst meant the same. Growing the inner capacities by sharing themwith others and developing them to the full potential are possible in thesocial process with other people, and without losing children’s own autonomy.

Similarly to William James, whose theoreticalfundaments shaped the vision of a progressive school of Helen Parkhurst andsocial constructivism. And both were advocates for natural growth of everychild.

Especially, James idea of “self”^[21]is crucial in the development of self-regulation both socially andindividually. He claims that the “self” evolve through doing in the socialworld. This is according to James “I”. This is an active part of the self. Butthe self is also an aspect which he called “me”. The “me” constitute feelingand beliefs about ourselves. Thus, James closely identify “self” withcognition.

“Thoughts connected as we feel them to be connectedare what we mean by personal selves”^[22]

James focuses on individual dimension ofself-regulation as well. He demonstrated metacognition as “thinking aboutthinking” in his own deliberation about the nature of thought. He claims thatmetacognition in relation to self-regulation may help us to control our ownhabits, thoughts and behaviours.

The individual form of self-regulation is for Jamesa higher form of thinking, metacognition, perception, attention, memory andintrospection. (James, 272-273).^[23]For James, two most crucial elements that constitute the fundaments ofself-regulation are most of all “Habit” and “Will”. These two elements play asignificant role in the process of controlling one’s thoughts and behaviours.He claims that one’s “self” develop though a habit or requires effort in theform of a will. These ideas he addresses most of all to the teachers to promotein their students self-regulation in developing the right habits accompanied byself-discipline and a good will, so as one can call a motivation:

“Thus are your pupils to be saved. First, by thestock of ideas, with which your furnish them, second by the amount of voluntaryattention that they can exert in holding to the right ones, howeverunpalatable, and third by the several habits of acting definitively on theselatter to which they have been successfully trained”. ^[24]

In this context James perceives the educationthrough the prism of acquiring habits, of controlling one’s behaviour in orderto be free and responsible. In James’ vision, self-regulation is what the selfdoes in bending one’s will to the actions which are necessary to formappropriate habits. His focus on stream of consciousness, metacognition andfreedom/responsibility one might see reflected in Parkhurst idea of naturaldevelopment of the child, enabling their natural growth. He writes aboutobservational learning, reflective learning, awareness which one might compareto Parkhurst as well. This level of metacognition help a child to developresponsible and aware self-regulation.

James however focuses here more on individualdimension of self-regulation, rather than the social one developed by Vygotsky.His individual constructivism might be compared to Jean Piaget, who stress theimportance of human development and learning. Both aspects might be compared towhat we call today self-regulation and metacognition^[25].

Piaget mentions self-regulation as a deliberatecontrol of one’s thoughts and actions in his two works. He divides reason intoelements of intellect and affect. ^[26]And self-regulation plays a crucial role in both elements.

“There is a constant parallel between the affectiveand intellectual life through childhood and adolescence….All behaviourpresupposes instruments and a technique: movements and intelligence. But allbehaviour also implies motives and final values: the sentiments. Thusaffectivity and intelligence are indissociable and constitute the twocomplementary aspects of human behaviour”^[27]

In this form, self-regulation is presented asdeliberate direction of thoughts and problem-solving actions. Piaget writesabout will concerning affect. The will in his rock help to control one’sdesires and emotions. He states that children are capable of self-direct theirbehaviours, thoughts and problem-solving activities.

The will in Parkhurst vision, takes the form ofmotivation and energy derived from natural learning from real life experiences.The liberation of the pupil’s spirit and inner energy, in order to achievebetter self-regulation in terms of affective and cognitive domain.

“a community environment to supply experiences tofree the native impulses and interests of each individual of the group. Anyimpediments in the way of native impulses prevent the release of pupil energy.It is not the creation of pupil energy, but its release and use that is theproblem of education”^[28].

Thus, to teach self-regulation in an affectivedomain, it is necessary to free the child from their own impulses, and createthe pupil energy so that they can self-direct it in the appropriate manner.Similarly to Piaget and Vygotsky, Parkhurst mentions constructing their own newknowledge based on the previous experiences. Individual and socialconstructivism is not directly mentioned in the text of Parkhurst, but herpractical solutions correspond to these theories.

“Under the Dalton Laboratory Plan, we place thework problem squarely before  him (thestudent) , indicating the standard which has to be attained. After that he isallowed to tackle it as he thinks fit in his own way and at his own speed.Responsibility for the result will develop not only his latent intellectualpowers, but also his judgement and character”^[29]

Parkhurst does not use the word metacognition, butshe writes that giving children responsibility develops their intellectual andemotional skills. Development of these skills, is necessary to educateself-reliant and implement self-regulation in individual dimension.

Regarding the social dimension of self-regulation,Parkhurst similarly to Vygotsky marks the significance of “interaction of a grouplife”. She was focused on preparing children to live in a democracy. In orderto achieve this, she created the environment that enlarged cooperation andinteraction between school staff and students. She claimed that “education is aco-operative task”. She develops the social constructive theory in practicethrough the implementation of labs, houses, graphs, and conferences. Thepractical tools to socialize the school environment so that the children cangrow to their full potential and mature in connection with the others.Parkhurst created places, where children together with the teacher orindividually planned their work, and reflected on their goals. During the LabTime students had the opportunity to meet with the teacher and colleagues andplan, organize and reflect on their own work with the help of certain tools,such as contracts, assignments that contained differentiated instruction.

“In addition to planning, cooperation could occurin such students activities as clubs and committees and the “House system”, thelatter a signature to Dalton innovation. Helen Parkhurst conceived of theHouse, particularly her high school, as the arrangement of the studentpopulation into advisory groups representing all four grades and meeting with ateacher advisor four times a week for a total period of ninety minutes.

House meetings consists of students planning theirwork with their advisors, discussing problems of scheduling appointments withteachers, or perhaps assembling in groups to discharge their variousresponsibilities to the rest of their communities. House discussions mightapproach the more personal level, too. The group might consider studentattitudes, habits and experiences, anything with a definite bearing oncommunity life within the school. Thus while House fostered the spirit ofcooperation among students, it also developed qualities of independence andsocial awareness”^[30].

During these activities both children and teachershad the chance to interact with each other and learn from each other. Toachieve self-regulation in both individual and social dimension along withdeveloping metacognition^[31],Parkhurst defined school’s objectives as:

1.       Thedevelopment on the part of a student of a personally formulated and cherishedthe outlook of life.

2.       Thedevelopment of intellectual powers. Generalization, consistency in thinking,planning and through and attack on the problems. Transfer of ideas from onefield to another.

3.       Thedevelopment of intellectual tools. Basic concepts and information insignificant areas of knowledge, ability to read with purpose, ability todiscriminate in reading and in observation, facility in oral and writtenexpression.

4.       Thedevelopment of self-awareness that leads to satisfying and joyful living. Itwill be realized through location of interests, pursuit of interests,understanding of self-through social relationships, plan of imagination in allareas of school activity, etc.^[32]

The curriculum was organized in such a way, that itreflected the contemporary society. So that students could “form a unifiedpoint of view on some of the problems of modern life”^[33].Providing students with holistic and integral development, real lifeexperiences, freedom and responsibility, discipline, interaction of a grouplife, is as we call today, self-regulation both in social and individualcontext.

The contemporary vision regarding self-regulationin the light of progressive school of the beginning of XX century does notdiffer significantly from the current perspective.

It is still a vital competency that is at the coreof all success in learning and life. It is still based on planning, settinggoals, self-organizing, control one’s emotions, and impulses, make thoughtfuland conscious choices, reflect and analyse on a right way, delay gratification,postpone attention. It still helps children to develop their independency,responsibility in relation to the others in a meaningful way. Self-regulationskills are vital for a child’s development and learning. The skills involveexecutive functioning, that is working memory, behavioural inhibition and taskswitching. For Parkhurst self-regulation was a proximal factor that consistently predicted the educational experiencesand outcomes.

Several studies ^[34]suggestthat learning self-regulation skills predict academic success^[35].Such a success nourish self-esteem and self-efficacy beliefs. One may statethat self-regulation and self-esteem complement each other in numerous ways^[36].

This promotes child’s self-esteem, agency andagentive learner. As we have analysed, self-regulation develops from externalto internal with the help of the environment, through the process ofsocialization. Therefore, a teacher’s assistance and interaction with othercolleagues is necessary in nourishing self-regulation skills. It seems that inthe countries where collectivism and power distance, short term orientation ^[37]arestrong, the more instruction and assistance of the adults is necessary to teachchildren autonomy and self-regulation both in individual and social dimension.Certainly, this generated the new research field in order to analyse to whatextent this additional help is necessary.

Chapter II

Social and Individual Dimension of self-regulationin practice on the example of International Dalton Schools across the world.

1. Building scaffolding tools for self-regulation in a social dimension in the light of the ZPD.

“The processes of the child development are notcompatible with the learning processes at school. The processes of developmentare following the learning processes, which constitute the Zone of ProximalDevelopment”.^[38]

In this chapter, I will focus on the possibility oforganizing the process of developing education taking into account the diversecultural context of self-regulation, to achieve this the followingproblems/questions are analysed:

·          Whatcharacterizes the self-regulation in practice and what is its significance inDalton International Schools for thinking about the development and design ofeffective teaching?

·          Whatis the specificity of building a scaffold for thinking and acting of a child,and the related redefinition of the role of the teacher, who creates theclimate?

·          Whatare the scaffolding tools to help to achieve it in practice taking into accountdifferent parents’ and teachers’ social roles across the world?

·          Whatit is formative nature of adult instruction?

Understanding the meaning of the Zone of ProximalDevelopment has important implications for education. For teaching to beeffective, the teacher must base on work with the pupil on the developing needsarising in him/her, new experiences, and knowledge, take into account his/herpotential and interests. It is important to learn about the specifics of oftendiscrete changes in the student's functioning, in his or her style of being andacting, observing his or her activity and involvement in solving the task.

But the state of development is never sufficientlydetermined by what has matured.

The procedure of diagnosing the child's developmentand abilities is important not only for designate the zone of his immediatedevelopment, but it becomes the basis for constructing a program ofdevelopmental work with the child. Based on the observations made it ispossible to predict the direction and dynamics of development, as well as toplan participation of adults in the field of assistance provided to the childin solving tasks. Analysing the complex and multi-stage implementation of a healthyself-regulation, indicates the stages of such a diagnosis.

In order to achieve this, we have developed theprocess of implementation in diverse International Dalton Schools across theworld. We developed few stages and implemented them in teacher’s portfolio:

• the information stage, the purpose of which is toidentify the most important form of the child’s activity, the content thatengages the child, and to collect information on the child's functioning,

• the stage of diagnosis of the child's currentabilities, which leads to the recognition of the child's current functioning,

• the stage of diagnosis of the zone of proximaldevelopment, thanks to which the inefficiencies of the current mode ofoperation of the examined person are revealed and the  possibilities of the child's ability to useadult or peer assistance while working independently,

At this stage of diagnosis, it is necessary tomonitor the "minimum necessary help" that the adult provides to thechild.

• the stage of diagnosing the extent of children’sdevelopment.

A teacher's activities in these stages can bedescribed as sensitive teaching. A sensitive adult designing a developmentalprogram of work with a child. The consequence of such a teacher's behaviour isthe adoption of a strategy of socialization.

Drawing 2, We learn together! Author: AgataRohner, Dalton International.

It is worth noting that in the above situation theobject of the child's activity and involvement is an assignment. The adult'sduty is aimed at creating conditions for solving this assignment creating asocial and engaged situation for appropriate learning. Above mentioned themodel of the assignment created for International Dalton Schools.

An adult/teacher (or parent) creates, or in otherwords, "activates" the child's functioning and by creating anatmosphere of initiative cooperation. This process "helps" the childto achieve the goal of the assignment. Parent in this process just assist inthe work of a child and does not fulfil the whole work for them. It leads tothe solution of the problem in stages, providing support, giving the right instructions,but it does not rush and does not shorten the way of reasoning, does not leadto too hasty generalization. It gives time for thinking, reasoning, analysing.Its action and cooperation with the child is characterized by timely and at thesame time tuning in to the child's abilities (tuning).^[39]

To put this model “We learn together” by the visonof Schaffer, Wood, Bruner into everyday practice, we have distinguished fewfactors of appropriate scaffolding in some Dalton Schools across the world:

Building scaffolding

General assumptions

• knowledge is constructed in social action, in theprocess of negotiating meanings with others,

• the adult-teacher is an intermediary who helps indiscovering and overcoming problems, in changing the image of the task andcreating new means to achieve the goals. His mediation outlines the child's"intellectual ceiling",

• the subject of the child's involvement in thesocial learning situation is a development task,

• the activity of an adult is aimed at creatingconditions for the student to solve the assignment.

Mechanisms

• from regulation by others to self-regulation,

• from supporting to independent action,

• Mediated Learning Experience (M. Klein)^[40],

• creating Episodes of Joint Involvement (R.H.Schaffer)^[41].

Conditions

• climate of initiative cooperation,

• space for thinking and acting,

• emotional support,

• budgeting time wisely (individual pace of workand task implementation, individual time needed to reach the next stage,individual time needed to work through the problem),

• professional, cultural competence of theteacher/tutor.

Adult activity

·          supporting

·          helping

·          challenge

·          sometimesno support at all, children can choose the instruction by themselves

Building Scaffolding is therefore associated withthe creation of specific situations, where children supported by an adult canexpand their current skills and knowledge. When building a scaffolding, theteacher/tutor refers to the previous knowledge of the child, by properlyformulating instructions, helps to complete the task, solve a problem, discovernew knowledge. Its activity consists in providing such a support structure thatengages the child in self-help and leads to solve the task.

The teacher supports the child until he or sheobtains specific knowledge and skills needed to freely and effectivelyindependent action. It adjusts the level of support (frequency, nature, intensityof stimulation) to the child's current level of competence.

The adult supports the child's current behaviour ina situation where he or she reveals his or her own initiative, inquires,searches, using his or her own abilities. It maintains commitment andmotivation to perform the task, minimizes frustration and withdrawal.

Speaking with Vygotsky’s and Parkhurst language,the teacher’s role is to define the Zone of Proximal Development, to stimulatethe ‘maturity” of every child by supporting their cognitive and metacognitivedevelopment, rather than fulfilling the assignments and duties for them.

A teaching-learning strategy named by Schaffer,Wood, Bruner, and Ross "Building a scaffolding" ^[42]isa strategy of self-regulation, it requires heuristic planning and sensitive"control" of learning, developing reflection (self-reflection) ofboth the student and the teacher. It is a procedure that allows the child tothe shift from "regulation by others to self-regulation". Undoubtedly,this strategy has many advantages: it engages the student in the learningprocess (from the very beginning the student is aware of the goal), teachesself-regulation, planning and monitoring of one's own actions, reduces thelevel of frustration, controls motivation and commitment, the instruction thatallows the child to achieve the goal and solve the task is guided individually,adapted to the current (changing) status of the pupil.

Introducing this strategy into everyday educationrequires not only a change in the educational philosophy of teachers, but alsothinking about the child and his or her path to understanding. It is related tothe redefinition of the role and related activity of the teacher in the cultureof learning, who becomes a self-reliant and independent thinker, in aconstantly changing reality.

All the practical tools which help to organizeself-regulated learning and self-regulation in an appropriate way are mostlyused in International Dalton Schools across the world. To stimulate the processof self-regulation in a social dimension we use prefect roles for children,among parents and teachers. All sections at school are aimed at stimulatingtheir own social abilities and use the children’s social talents in relationwith the others. In addition, children work independently in the placesdesigned for it, such as laboratories.Through the implementation ofHouse, Mixed Aged Families, Assignment, Lab and Diaries children can experiencelearning. Learning becomes for them an experience.

Herewith the practical example of We learntogether! In which all three elements are used. First of all, theassignment is aimed at developing children’s inner potential, and then it isaimed at using this potential in relation to and in connection with the othersin the group. Furthermore, the focus is on where, when and with whom theprocess of work is taking place. Wha is the role of a teacher? In what way thehelp is offered? How it is arranged in practice? Activity of the teacher/parent/peer,professional knowledge, amount of help, frequency of meetings withteacher/colleagues are included in this assignment.

This assignment is used in Wenzhou DaltonElementary School and helps to put the theory of Zone Proximal development intoeveryday Dalton practice.

Using all the above mentioned theories resulted increating a specially designed assignment for children aged 14-18. ^[43]

We learn together in practice!

Project  for a student:

Name of student:

Project title:

Project dates:………………………………..to…………………………………………..

School:

Age level: 14-18

Phases of the project:

• Problem     statement. The     child states clearly what is the problem or problems and outlines the     possible ways of solving them.

• Interacting

Diving into engaging,relevant, and credible media resources to identify the need to enquiry.Following this, the interaction can be:

·        Studentto material/media. Teacher provides formal and informal resources for children,it can be research, reading, social and digital media, eBooks, data base)

·        Childto peer. This form of interaction is chosen by peer or teacher. Children areworking together towards common goodness and solving a problem in heterogenousteams of four (e.g. global warming, climate change, air pollution)

·        Childto expert. Teacher is arranging meeting with experts. Children can make interviewswith experts or together they create a simple research in which the expert andthe teacher play the role of a guide, referee, and advisor.

·         Clarifying

Thisstage involves summarizing, paraphrasing, categorizing learning with teacher.After analysation of resources, children state their own point of view and theytry to clarify the nature of things. Children distinguish here between fact andopinion; the teacher helps to organize their thinking. They learn to beindependent and cautious. Teacher’s role in this stage is to offer feedback andask: What they know? What they think they know? What they think is the bestpossible solution for the problem? How do they want to realize the assignment?What is the big picture here? What are the elements and how do they fit? Whatdo I understand and know about the problem?

• Orientation/planning-     the children are introduced to a certain     subject while learning about certain subject. They think what kind of     materials do they need to make this project

• Gathering     information inthis stepchildren     learn more about the topic they are assigned to according to their ability     level. When project is opened learning goals are associated with the     assignment are presented and children must indicate to what extent they     think that they already have met these learning goals (self-judgement). When handing in     the project, they must reflect on what they learned by indicating to what     extent they now think they have reached these learning goals. All projects     include a short introduction (What are you going to do?, What kind of     materials do you need?). At the end of this phase children gather and     summarize all the information they gathered by answering the questions     about the topic they learn. This phase we can divide into the following     sections:

A.   Whatare you going to do?

B.    Explanation

C.    Whatdo you need? (what kind of materials do you need? F.e.worksheet, books, magazines, websites. Etc.)

D.   Withwhom are you going to work?What is your role inthis assignment? Are the parents involved in this task? In what role? How isthe teacher involved in this task? In what way do they assist?

E.    Where are you going towork? (the teacher creates a space and time for students ‘work, f.e. in the Labafter lessons, during “office hour” or “Dalton Extra”. Teacher creates socialconditions for extra help (or no help) for students, who fall behind. Also, forthose who would like to have more support from the adults.

F.     Orientation(f.e. look at the worksheet together, read theworksheet carefully. Do you know what you have to do? Write your hypothesis andstate problem questions).

G.   Investigation(now you fulfill your assignment. Follow theinstructions on the worksheet. Answer the questions).

H.   Drawingconclusions (students give a feedback and draws the conclusion)

I.       Evaluating(Was your hypothesis correct?, Write a summaryof your project.

Wasthis project an engaged learning experience for you? If yes, in what way?

What might you have donedifferently to increase your engagement in this project?

What did you learn fromthis project?

Did you feel like aninvestigator?

What obstacles did you meetwhile doing the project?

Who helped you to overcomethe obstacles? Who did you help? What was your role in this assignment?

Did you develop your ownproblem-solving strategies? If yes, what kind of?

Did you find satisfactionand pleasure in your work?

Did you take charge of yourown learning experience and explain or show the teacher what you wanted to do?

Was the project complex,requiring sustained amount of time over days or even weeks?

How did you cooperate withyour mates? Did you help your colleagues? Did you ask for help from yourparents, teachers?

Could you talk about yourideas with others? Were you fair-minded in dealing with those who disagreedwith you?

1. Did you offer each     other support, suggestions and encouragement?

2. Did you recognize your     own strengths and strengths of the others?

Reflection:

1. Did you manage to     achieve all your didactical goals? If yes, why? If not, what were your     obstacles on your way? How did you manage to combat them?

2. What can you learn     from your work on this project in the future?

3. What did you learn     from the others and what have you learned the others?

4. What will you do to     improve your work in the future?

• Designing/creating/writing-     in this phase children work on the     assignment in which the knowledge must be gathered and converted to a     certain design.

• Testing     and improving- in this phase  children engage their design ideas using     charts.

• Reporting-     in this phase children report on     their design decisions by writing a design report in which they describe     their decisions, justify them and reflect on the project.

Didyou help other colleagues in this assignment? Did you ask for help? If yes, whohelped you to fulfill your goals? How often did you ask for help? How often didyou meet with your mentor teacher or another student in the Lab? Can youpresent the agenda of meetings? Were the parents engage in this assignment? Ifyeas, in what role?

Examples of differenttopics:

Project:The Dalton Plan- history and impact on a modern education (websites, library,interviews with experts).

Project:Historical background of Wenzhou  basedon archeological aspects (in groups students visit museums, making interviewswith local historians, make a historical research,  presentation of the project in the schoolconference in the form of presentation and essays).

Project:How green are we? Collect the statistics of consuming energy  in your region. How can we become moreenvironmentally friendly? How to prevent the issue of global warming? Presentyour ideas with suggested solutions by writing opinion essay. Prepare aquestionnaire or interview with teachers, families, students on how they takecare of the climate. Then, work out the statistics and find ways to solvebiggest environment problems. ^[44]

The above mentioned construction of the taskresulted in creating a special assignment for senior high school studentstitled “Big Investigators”. The assignment is described in details inthe book “Dalton Plan, a child’s lifetime experience”.^[45]The assignments are done with Home Advisor teachers, local experts, and localinstitutions, some parents and other colleagues. Students lead the research inthe form of interviews, observations, questionnaires.

Conclusion

The following paper seeks to examine the ways ofachieving a healthy and successful self-regulation in International DaltonSchools worldwide. The first part of this paper focuses on researching andanalysing the theories of the educators of progressive school of the beginningof XXI century, such as Helen Parkhurst, William James, Lev Vygotsky and inPoland professor Anna Brzezinska, the pioneer of self-regulation in PolishDalton Schools.

All the educators mark the importance of the roleof a teacher, parent and peers in introducing a young person in the world ofself-reliant living and working, and preparing a child for an independentworking and living. Helen Parkhurst stressed on arranging social conditionsthat will stimulate metacognitive and socio-emotional skills of the child. Therole of the adults in this process was to create such conditions. This processwas arranged in a special social laboratories, where children could work ontheir own with a specially designed and tailored instruction. In some cases theinstruction was not necessary, the child was free to  work out the way they would like to work ontheir own. Parkhurst vision was based on stimulating the natural growth ofevery child. That vision could be compared to the vision of Wiliam James one ofthe philosophers who praised the idea of natural growth of the child.  For Vygotsky however, the role of the parentsand teachers was much broader. He  wasthe advocate of social constructivism and his theories were focused onsensitive control of learning with the help of the adults, rather than allowingfully independent process of self-discovery, such as the one from the vision ofHelen Parkhurst and Anna Brzezinska, or Jean Piaget^[46].They believed that children actively construct their understanding of theworld, rather than passively absorbing the information. This emphasized therole of the child as “little scientist”, exploring and making sense of theirenvironment. Such constructed educational vision helps for a healthy buildingof the construction of self-regulation in both social and individual dimension,also in the countries with different perspective on self-regulation,independence and self-reliance.

The second part of the article makes an attempt toanswer the question: what sorts of practice and scaffolding tools can weprovide at schools to stimulate self-regulation. In addition, why and to whichextent it is necessary to introduce the ZPD? Is it always necessary? Based onour experiences we may firmly states, that in some cultures where it isextremely difficult to educate self-reliant child, it is necessary to introducethe child in the world of self-reliance with the help of adults.

In Family cultures, such as the one in China,Turkey, or Poland an effective parent or teacher, that “good one” is strict,benevolent, and good-willing. The parent and teacher take care of their peoplein return for loyalty, often using formal and autocratic style. Where teacheror parents give orders, and the child fulfils them. The teacher is directiveand gives clear task descriptions and instructions regularly. ^[47]Themotto is “people respect what you inspect”, is in control but also an aptimproviser. Hierarchy and developing trusting relationships play an importantrole in decision-making. Decision making in the classroom and schools aretop-down and given to children to implement. The teacher- the boss gives ordersand ready instructions. Children do not analyse all available information, theyfully rely on the order of more experienced and wiser teacher. There is a lowneed to analyse all available information before decisions can be taken. InJapan, to compare an effective teacher is a situational leader, different leadsand instructions emerge and lead in different phases. Decision making atschools is top-down and bottom-up. The teacher usually gathers data and usegroup decision-making in order to avoid uncertainty. Students require anddemand clear instructions before they proceed with the assignment. ^[48]

All the above analysed cultural differences, helpus to understand that in order to educate a self-reliant child, especially inFamily cultures, we need to implement Zone of proximal Development along with acertain scaffolding for teachers and children to help them to becomeself-reliant and independent learner in their own tempo. In Dutch DaltonSchools and Finnish Schools, self-reliance and self-regulation are strongpillars of everyday life and the Feminine culture. Consequently, the researchresults made on self-regulation will be different than those made in China,Turkey or Poland, where the attitude of parents and teachers is dissimilar tothat in The Netherlands.

Second part of article focuses on buildingscaffolding tools, especially in International Dalton Schools in the lands witha strong Family Cultures.

Such constructed learning process undoubtedlyintroduces the child in the world of being an independent thinker, who candiscover the world themselves surrounded by the people who show him where tolook, but the child decides what to see.

The above discussed subject requires further adeeper analysis and most of all needs to supported by the researchresults.  

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[1] Vygotsky and education, Instructional Implications and Applicationsof Sociohistorical Psychology, pp. 127- 154, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

[2] Ibidem, p.155.

[3] Vygotsky and education, Instructional Implications and Applicationsof Sociohistorical Psychology, pp. 127- 154, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

[4] H. Parkhurst, Education on the Dalton Plan, p.33, New York E.P.Dutton and Company, 681 Fifth Avenue, 1994.

[5] Self-regulation and autonomy, Social and Developmental Dimensionsof Human Conduct, p.231-252, Cambridge University press, 2013.

[6] Brzezinska, A. I. Rekosiewicz M., Early Childhood Support fromthe perspective of psychological development, Poznan Institute ofPsychology, Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznan, 2004.

[7] A. Sowinska, Innovations in English Language Teaching in CreativeSchools in Poland, JP II Catholic University Press, 2016.

[8] Ibidem, p.196-204.

[9] Vygotsky, L.S. (1994). The problem of the environment. In: R. van der Veer, J. Valsiner (Eds.).

The Vygotsky reader (338-354).Oxford: Blackwell.

[10]H. Parkhurst, The Dalton Laboratory Plan Defined, 1930, unpublished,archives of Dutch Dalton Association.

[11] Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky, Vol.3New York: Plenum Press, p.256.

[12] Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in the society: the development ofHigher Psychological Processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p.134.

[13] L. Vygotsky, Mind in Society, The development of HigherPsychological Processes, Harvard University Press, London 1978, p.19

[14] Parkhurst, H., Explanation of the Dalton Laboratory Plan by itsoriginator Helen Parkhurst, Educational Director of the Children’s UniversitySchool, Dalton Association Cornwall Gardens, London, S.W.7, 1926. p.6

[15] Patrick Sins, Renske de Leeuw, Jaap de Brouwer, Promoting explicitinstruction of strategies for elf-regulated learning; evaluating a teacherprofessional development program in primary education, Springer PublishingHouse, Rotterdam, 2023.

[16] L. Vygotsky, Mind in Society, The development of HigherPsychological Processes, Harvard University Press, London 1978, p.86.

[17] Ibidem, p.86.

[18] Ib., p.86.

[19] Parkhurst, H., Explanation of the Dalton Laboratory Plan by itsoriginator Helen Parkhurst, Educational Director of the Children’s University School,Dalton Association Cornwall Gardens, London, S.W.7, 1926. p.6

[20] L. Vygotsky, Mind in Society, The development of HigherPsychological Processes, Harvard University Press, London 1978, p.19

[21] W. James, The principles of psychology, New York, Dover 1950,p.480.

[22] W. James, Writings 1878-1899. New York: The Library of America,1992, p. 154.

[23] Ib., p. 272-273.

[24] Ibidem, p.818.

[25] Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control,self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert, & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65–116).Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

[26] Piaget, J. (1964/1968). Six psychological studies. New York: RandomHouse (A. Tenzer, trans.; original work published in 1964).

[27] Ibidem, p.15.

[28] S. Semel, The Dalton School: Thetransformation of a progressive school, p.373.

[29] Ibidem, p.374.

[30] S. Semel, The Dalton School: The transformation of a progressiveschool, School of tomorrow schools of today, p.175.

[31] Berends, Rene. Helen Parkhurst, the Founder of the Dalton Plan,Saxion University Press, 2023.

[32] S. Semel, The Dalton School: The transformation of a progressiveschool, p.10.

[33] Ibidem, p.12.

[34] Patrick Sins, Renske de Leeuw, Jaap de Brouwer, Promoting explicitinstruction of strategies for elf-regulated learning; evaluating a teacherprofessional development program in primary education, Springer PublishingHouse, Rotterdam, 2023.

[35] McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S., & Duncan, R.(2017). SEL interventions in early childhood. The Future of

Children, 27(1), 33–47.https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1145093.pdf

[36] Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J.(2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy andself-regulation of reading and writing

through modeling. Reading &Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 7–25.

[37] Gert Hofsteede, Cultures and Organizations, 2010, p.341-349.

[38] Vygotsky, Chosen psychological processes, p. 517-530. PWNPublishing House, Warsaw, 1971.

[39] Schaffer,H.R. (1994). The social context of psychobiological development. In: A.Brzezińska, G. Lutomski (ed.). A child in the world of people and objects (pp.72-95). Poznań: Zysk i S-ka.

[40] Klein,P.S. (1984). Behavior of mothers toward infants in relation to infant’sperceived temperament. Child Development, 55, 1212-1218.

[41] Schaffer, H.R. (2005, 2006). Childpsychology. Warsaw: PWN Publishing House.

[42] P. Hakkarainen, A Cultural-HistoricalApproach to the Development of Self-Regulation in Children in Play andLearning, pp. 67-110, in this volume.

[43] R. Rohner, A. Rohner, Dalton Plan, a child’s lifetime experience, NortheastNormal University Press 2021, p.120.

[44] R. Rohner, A. Rohner, Dalton Plan, a child’s lifetimeexperience, Northeast Normal University Press 2021, p.106-110.

[45] Ibidem, p. 135.

[46] Jean Piaget, The language and thought of the child, RoutledgeTaylor and Francis Group, London and New York, 2022, p.140-143.

[47] Huib Wursten, The 7 Mental Images of National Culture: Learningand Managing in a Globalized World,

[48] Ibidem, p. 108-110.